Is fair representation good for children? effects of electoral partisan bias in state legislatures on policies affecting children's health and well-being.

Increasing evidence suggests that state policies impact constituents' health, but political determinants of health and health inequities remain understudied. Using state and year fixed-effects models, we determined the extent to which changes in electoral partisan bias in lower chambers of U.S. state legislatures (i.e., discrepancy between statewide vote share and seat share) were followed by changes in five state policies affecting children and families (1980-2019) and a composite of safety net programs (1999-2018). We examined effects on each policy and whether the effect was modified when bias was accompanied by unified party control. Next, we determined whether the effect differed depending on which party it favored. Less bias resulted only in higher AFDC/TANF benefits. Both pro-Democratic and pro-Republican bias was followed by decreased AFDC/TANF benefits and increased Medicaid benefits. AFDC/TANF recipients, unemployment benefits, minimum wage, and pre-K-12 education spending increased following pro-Democratic bias and decreased following pro-Republican bias. Estimated effects on the composite measure of safety net policies were all close to null. Some effects were modulated by unified party control. Results demonstrate that increasing fairness in elections is not a panacea by itself for increasing generosity of programs affecting children's well-being. Indeed, bias can be somewhat beneficial for the expansiveness of some policies. Furthermore, with the exception of unemployment benefits and AFDC/TANF recipients, Democrats have not been using the additional power that comes with electoral bias to spend more on major programs that benefit children. Finally, after decades in which electoral bias was in Democrats' favor, bias has started to shift toward Republicans in the last decade. This trend forecasts more cuts in almost all the policies in this study, especially education and AFDC/TANF recipients. There is a need for more research and advocacy emphasis on the political determinants of social determinants of health, especially at the state level.

Transition between social protection systems for workers with long term health problems: A controlled retrospective cohort study.

Many nations have established workers' compensation systems as a feature of their social protection system. These systems typically provide time-limited entitlements such as wage replacement benefits and funding for medical treatment. Entitlements may end for workers with long-term health conditions before they have returned to employment. We sought to determine the prevalence of transitions to alternative forms of social protection, specifically social security benefits, among injured workers with long-term disability, when workers' compensation benefits end. We linked Australian workers' compensation and social security data to examine receipt of social security payments one year before and after workers' compensation benefit cessation. Study groups included (1) injured workers whose workers' compensation benefits ceased due to reaching a 260-week limit introduced by legislative reform (N = 2761), (2) a control group of injured workers with at least 104 weeks workers compensation income support (N = 3890), and (3) a matched community control group (N = 10,114). Adjusted binary logistic regression examined the odds of transitions to social security in the injured worker groups relative to the community control group. Within 12 months of workers' compensation benefit cessation, 60% (N = 1669) of the exposed group received social security payments, of which 41% (N = 1120) received the unemployment allowance and 19% (N = 516) the disability pension. Among the work injured control group, 42% (N = 1676) received social security payments after workers compensation benefits ceased. Transitions to social security payments were significantly more common than community levels for both exposed (OR 25.0, 95%CI = 20.7, 30.1) and work injured control groups (OR 4.7, 95%CI = 4.2, 5.3). Many injured workers with long-term health problems transition to social security when their workers' compensation benefits cease. Transitions were more common among workers whose claims ended due to legislative reform which time-limited benefits. Design and implementation of system level policy reform should consider the social and economic impacts of transitions between separate social protection systems.

Enhanced unemployment benefits, mental health, and substance use among low-income households during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: To buffer the economic impacts of the pandemic-induced economic downturns, the U.S. government passed major economic stimulus bills that provided cash payments to affected citizens and a large boost to unemployment benefits. We ask what impact these enhanced safety-net policies have had on mental health and stress-induced substance use among low-income Americans, especially enhanced unemployment insurance (UI) benefits, which constituted a large economic transfer to those eligible. METHODS: Using individual fixed effects analysis of a panel of nearly 900 low-income Americans since the start of the pandemic from the Understanding America Survey, we examine how receipt of enhanced unemployment benefits has impacted the mental health burden and substance use behaviors of low-income Americans. We additionally examine the buffering effect of a set of other safety-net measures (Stimulus, Medicaid, SNAP, TANF, housing assistance, EITC, WIC, and CHIP). RESULTS: We found that job loss, regardless of benefit receipt, was associated with increased stress and decreased average substance use, driven by reduced smoking when compared with those were employed. Yet, when factoring in UI receipt we see that receiving UI was associated with reduced stress, but no impact on depression or substance use. In contrast, those who did not receive UI experienced greater stress compared with those who were employed. Overall, we found that people who remained employed used substances more than people who were unemployed regardless of UI receipt with the exception of drinking. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that enhanced unemployment offset some of the negative mental health effects of the pandemic and did not increase routine substance use among the unemployed.

Weathering the storm together: Does unemployment insurance help couples avoid divorce?

This study examines whether unemployment insurance benefit generosity impacts divorce, drawing on full population administrative data and a Swiss reform that reduced unemployment insurance maximum benefit duration. We assess the effect of the reform by comparing the pre- to the post-reform change in divorce rates among unemployed individuals who were affected by the reform with the change in divorce rates among a statistically balanced group of unemployed individuals who was not affected by the reform. Difference-in-differences estimates suggest that the reform caused a 2.8 percentage point increase in divorce (a 25% increase). Effects were concentrated among low-income couples (+58%) and couples with an unemployed husband (+32%) though gender differences are attributable to men's breadwinner status. Female main breadwinners were more strongly affected (+78%) than male main breadwinners (+40%). Results confirm the 'family stress model' which posits that job search and financial stress cause marital conflict. Policymakers should consider a broad array of impacts, including divorce, when considering reductions in unemployment insurance generosity.

Justice perceptions of sanctions for unemployed welfare recipients.

Institutions of the welfare state are supposed to function in accordance with normative principles of redistributive justice, which should guide not only the allocation but also the withdrawal of resources. Our study examines justice assessments of sanctions for unemployed individuals receiving welfare benefits, a much-discussed variant of benefit withdrawal. We present results from a factorial survey that asked German citizens to indicate which sanction they would perceive as just under different scenarios. In particular, we look at different kinds of deviant behavior on the part of the unemployed job seeker, which allows for a broad picture concerning potential sanction-triggering events. The findings show that the extent of sanctions perceived as just varies considerably across scenarios. Respondents would impose more sanctions on men, repeaters, and young people. Moreover, they have a clear picture of the severity of the deviant behavior.

Racial and ethnic disparities in who receives unemployment benefits during COVID-19.

The impact of COVID-19 on job displacement in the United States has been unevenly experienced by race, ethnicity, and the socioeconomically disadvantaged. Although unemployment benefits may mitigate the effects of job displacement, this social safety net is also unevenly distributed across workers. We examine racial/ethnic differences in receiving unemployment benefits among workers displaced by the pandemic. We use data from the US Census Household Pulse Survey (HPS), which is specifically designed to capture the real time effects of the pandemic across a wide spectrum of social issues. (US Census, 2020) Unlike the Current Population Survey (CPS) data used in the monthly unemployment rate calculations, the HPS data allow us to identify workers directly displaced from their jobs by the pandemic. We analyze over 1.3 million HPS interviews from the first stage of the pandemic when the disruptions to the labor market were the most severe, covering the period from June 11, 2020 to December 22, 2020. We contribute to the literature on the labor market effects of the pandemic in two ways. One, the HPS data allow us to identify workers who directly experienced job loss as a result of the disruptions created by COVID-19 and to determine who did not receive unemployment insurance. Two, we present both bivariate and multivariate analyses to examine racial/ethnic disparities for five groups: non-Hispanic whites, Blacks, Hispanic, Asian, and non-Hispanic Other workers. We find that Black and Hispanic workers are more likely to be unemployed without Unemployment Insurance (UI). Black workers are 12.0% of the employed but 17.5% of displaced workers without UI. Hispanic workers are even more affected. Hispanic workers are 15.6% of the employed, but are 23.4% of all displaced workers without UI. Although there are limitations to using the HPS data-the survey was administered online in only English and Spanish and occupational and industry data are not available for displaced workers, the results still provide valuable insights informing the current policy debate about the effects of expanding UI.

Medium-Term Forecast of Government Spending on the Unemployment Social Protection System in Russia in the Conditions of Economic Recession.

A simulation model of the Russian unemployment social protection system is developed and used to study the impact of the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, demographic processes, and the increase in retirement age on federal spending on unemployment benefits. Trends of overall and registered unemployment across various socio-demographic groups in 1992-2020 are analyzed, with special attention paid to periods of economic recession and recovery. The identified patterns are used to develop modeling scenarios. Calculations show that in the unfavorable scenario government spending on unemployment benefits will increase  many times. As a possible solution to the problem, it is proposed to convert the unemployment social protection system to insurance principles. The time frame in which reforming the system would be less expensive for the federal budget is defined.

Geographic spread of COVID-19 and local economies: Heterogeneous effects by establishment size and industry.

Using province-level establishments and employment data from the Korean Employment Insurance Database, this paper investigates how the regional spread of COVID-19 affects local businesses and unemployment by establishment size and industry. We find that the number of small establishments declines substantially after the COVID-19 pandemic through a decrease in new establishment creation and a surge in establishment closures. By contrast, large establishments are not affected significantly. Examining the numbers of unemployment benefits (UB) applicants, an indicator of unemployment, we find that the higher the rate of COVID-19 confirmed cases in a province, the higher the number of UB applicants, regardless of their previous workplace size. Our analysis of employment insurance subscribers further confirms that the regional spread of COVID-19 leads to a significant reduction in employment and job mobility in small establishments. Regarding industry heterogeneity in the COVID-19 effects, we find that local COVID-19 outbreaks affect local industries more through the reduction in establishment creation and new employment than through an increase in establishment closures. Industries that require face-to-face operations, such as lodging & restaurant, experience a substantial adverse impact in the early phase, and the impact also tends to last longer as COVID-19 situations prolong.

Public support for U.S. social safety net policies throughout the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 has stretched the U.S. social safety net and prompted federal legislation designed to ameliorate the pandemic's health and economic impacts. We surveyed a nationally representative cohort of 1222 U.S. adults in April 2020 and November 2020 to evaluate changes in public opinion about 11 social safety net policies and the role of government over the course of the pandemic. A majority of U.S. adults supported six policies at both time points, including policies guaranteeing two weeks of paid sick leave; enacting universal health insurance; increasing the federal minimum wage; and increasing government spending on construction projects, business tax credits, and employment education and training. From April to November 2020, public support was stable for nine of the 11 policies but declined nearly 10 percentage points for policies guaranteeing two weeks paid sick leave (from 76% support in April 2020 to 67% support in November 2020) and extending unemployment insurance benefits (51% to 42%). Declines in support for these two policies were concentrated among those with higher incomes, more education, in better health status, the employed, and those with health insurance. The share of respondents believing in a strong role of government also declined from 33% in April to 26% in November 2020 (p > 0.05). Despite these shifts, we observed consistent majority support for several policies enacted during the pandemic, including guaranteeing paid sick leave and business tax credits, as well as employment-related policies.

Can Government Responses to Unemployment Reduce the Impact of Unemployment on Suicide?

Background: Unemployment is a well-documented risk factor for suicide. Findings from a number of studies suggest that government policy plays a crucial role in mediating the unemployment-suicide relationship. Aims: Our review was designed to assess whether government policies aimed at managing unemployment can moderate the impact of unemployment on suicide and self-harm. Method: A systematic search of the Medline, ProQuest, Scopus, and Web of Science databases was conducted. All original, English-language, peer-reviewed studies examining the impact of unemployment policy on rates of suicide or self-harm were eligible for inclusion. Results: Six unique studies were identified, each using an ecological design and suicide deaths as the outcome. Three of five studies looking at unemployment benefits found a negative association with suicide rates. Studies examining the impact of active unemployment policy and employment protection legislation found evidence of beneficial effects. The effects of the policies were small and had particular benefit in reducing suicide rates among men. Limitations: The ecological designs used may limit conclusions around causality. It is unclear whether the findings generalize to those in lower- and middle-income countries. Conclusion: The findings suggest that unemployment policies can mitigate the relationship between unemployment and suicide, particularly among men.

The forms of decommodification and (de)familisation measures during COVID-19: What is the impact on female's welfare?

Using the decommodification and (de)familisation framework, this paper examines the two main Social Safety Net programme during the pandemic and its effect on female welfare in Indonesia. It is argued that despite expansion of decommodification measures through unemployment benefits, females tend to benefit less because the existing labour force structure is highly dominated by males. Hence, the only way of being financially secure is to have access to Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT), which means it then exposes them to greater risk of familisation. This is because to be eligible for CCT, they are (informally) required to perform unpaid caregiving. This article concludes that familial ethics has become a rationale for the state to push females to seek social support through a family relationship, resulting in social risk internalisation during the COVID-19 crisis, rather granting them citizenship rights-based welfare.

Disabled but not deserving? The perceived deservingness of disability welfare benefit claimants.

While disability benefits make up the largest group of claimants in high-income countries, we know surprisingly little about which disabled people are seen as 'deserving' benefits, nor whether different people in different countries judge deservingness-related characteristics similarly. This is surprising given they are increasingly the focus of retrenchment, which often affirms the deservingness of 'truly deserving' disabled people while focusing cuts and demands on those 'less deserving'. This article addresses this gap using two vignette-based factorial survey experiments: (i) the nine-country 'Stigma in Global Context - Mental Health Study' (SGC-MHS); (ii) a new YouGov survey in Norway/the UK, together with UK replication. I find a hierarchy of symptoms/impairments, from wheelchair use (perceived as most deserving), to schizophrenia and back pain, fibromyalgia, depression and finally asthma (least deserving). Direct manipulations of deservingness-related characteristics also influence judgements, including membership of ethnic/racial ingroups and particularly blameworthiness and medical legitimation. In contrast, the effects of work ability, age and work history are relatively weak, particularly when compared to the effects on unemployed claimants. Finally, for non-disabled unemployed claimants, I confirm previous findings that right-wingers respond more strongly to deservingness-related characteristics, but Norwegians and Britons respond similarly. For disabled claimants, however, the existing picture is challenged, with, for example, Britons responding more strongly to these characteristics than Norwegians. I conclude by drawing together the implications for policy, particularly the politics of disability benefits, the role of medical legitimation and the legitimacy challenges of the increasing role of mental health in disability benefit recipiency.

Unemployment Insurance and Mortality Among the Long-Term Unemployed: A Population-Based Matched-Cohort Study.

Unemployment insurance is hypothesized to play an important role in mitigating the adverse health consequences of job loss. In this prospective cohort study, we examined whether receiving unemployment benefits is associated with lower mortality among the long-term unemployed. Census records from the 2006 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort (n = 2,105,595) were linked to mortality data from 2006-2016. Flexible parametric survival analysis and propensity score matching were used to model time-varying relationships between long-term unemployment (≥20 weeks), unemployment-benefit recipiency, and all-cause mortality. Mortality was consistently lower among unemployed individuals who reported receiving unemployment benefits, relative to matched nonrecipients. For example, mortality at 2 years of follow-up was 18% lower (95% confidence interval (CI): 9, 26) among men receiving benefits and 30% lower (95% CI: 18, 40) among women receiving benefits. After 10 years of follow-up, unemployment-benefit recipiency was associated with 890 (95% CI: 560, 1,230) fewer deaths per 100,000 men and 1,070 (95% CI: 810, 1,320) fewer deaths per 100,000 women. Our findings indicate that receiving unemployment benefits is associated with lower mortality among the long-term unemployed. Expanding access to unemployment insurance may improve population health and reduce health inequalities associated with job loss.

The impact of long-term workers' compensation benefit cessation on welfare and health service use: protocol for a longitudinal controlled data linkage study.

BACKGROUND: In 2012, the Australian state of New South Wales passed legislation that reformed its workers' compensation system. Section 39 introduced a five-year limit on income replacement, with the first affected group having their benefits cease in December 2017. There is limited evidence on how this will affect their healthcare service use and where they will go for financial support. METHODS: Multiple data sources will be linked: administrate workers' compensation claims data from the State Insurance Regulatory Authority (SIRA), universal health insurance data from the Medical Benefits Schedule (MBS) and Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), state hospital and emergency department data, and social welfare data from the Department of Social Services' Data Over Multiple Individual Occurrences (DOMINO). An estimated 4,125 injured workers had their benefits cease due to Section 39. These will form the exposure group who will be compared to 1) a similar group of workers' compensation claimants who have had at least two years of compensated time off work but whose benefits did not cease due to Section 39; and 2) a community comparison group drawn from state hospital and emergency department records.An accredited third party will link the data, which will be accessible only via secure virtual machine. Initial analyses will compare the prevalence and incidence of service use across groups in both the year before and year after benefit cessation; the community control will be assigned the median benefit cessation date in lieu of an actual date. To estimate the impact of benefit cessation due to Section 39, we will conduct time series analysis of the prevalence and incidence of service use. DISCUSSION: This study will provide much-needed evidence on the consequences of long-term benefit cessation, particularly on subsequent healthcare and welfare service use.

Do unemployment benefits and economic aids to pay electricity bills remove the energy poverty risk of Spanish family units during lockdown? A study of COVID-19-induced lockdown.

The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered serious economic crises in many countries. In Spain, millions of individuals have been ordered to remain at home and many are unemployed. The increased use of electrical appliances and low incomes make energy poverty highly likely. This study thus analyses the effectiveness of unemployment benefits and social measures to help Spanish family units pay their electricity bill during the COVID-19-induced lockdown in Spain (March-May 2020) and during a hypothetical lockdown in winter and summer. The results showed that the unemployment aids can contribute to alleviating energy poverty, especially if the unemployed individual worked in a poorly-paying job or for just a few hours. However, the social measures were found insufficient to avoid energy poverty. The application of a variable discount percentage in the electricity bill based on income and the month of the year would reduce energy poverty risk during further incidences of lockdown.

The effect of unemployment benefits on health: A propensity score analysis.

In the wake of the Great Recession, an expanding body of research has highlighted the role of social protection policies in mitigating the deleterious effects of adverse socioeconomic experiences. In this paper, we examine whether unemployment benefits - a key pillar of national social protection systems - can offset the negative health consequences of unemployment. Using cross-sectional nationally representative data from the Canadian Community Health Survey covering the period between 2009 and 2014, we employed propensity score matching to estimate the effect of receiving unemployment benefits on self-rated health among the unemployed. After matching benefit recipients to comparable non-recipient 'controls', we found that receiving unemployment benefits was associated with better health outcomes. In our main analyses, benefit recipiency reduced the probability of reporting poor self-rated health among the unemployed by up to 4.9% (95% CI -7.3, -2.5). Sensitivity analyses stratified by socioeconomic position revealed stronger treatment effects among lower income and less educated individuals. By contrast, treatment effects were small or negligible among higher income and more educated individuals. Our findings provide evidence that unemployment benefits can play an important role in offsetting the negative health consequences of unemployment among the socioeconomically disadvantaged. These findings lend support to recent calls, including many from within the field of public health, for governments to respond to current labor market trends by expanding the generosity and scope of social protection policies.

Social welfare matters: a realist review of when, how, and why unemployment insurance impacts poverty and health.

The recent global recession and concurrent rise in job loss makes unemployment insurance (UI) increasingly important to smooth patterns of consumption and keep households from experiencing extreme material poverty. In this paper, we undertake a realist review to produce a critical understanding of how and why UI policies impact on poverty and health in different welfare state contexts between 2000 and 2013. We relied on literature and expert interviews to generate an initial theory and set of propositions about how UI might alleviate poverty and mental distress. We then systematically located and synthesized peer-review studies to glean supportive or contradictory evidence for our initial propositions. Poverty and psychological distress, among unemployed and even the employed, are impacted by generosity of UI in terms of eligibility, duration and wage replacement levels. Though unemployment benefits are not intended to compensate fully for a loss of earnings, generous UI programs can moderate harmful consequences of unemployment.

Decomposing the effect of social policies on population health and inequalities: an empirical example of unemployment benefits.

AIM: The purpose of this study is to discuss and empirically contrast different conceptualizations and operationalizations of social policies in analysing health and educational differences in health cross-nationally. METHODS: Country-level institutional and expenditure data on unemployment benefit schemes and individual-level data from the EU-SILC for 23 countries were used to analyse the association between unemployment benefits and self-assessed health for individuals with different educational attainment. RESULTS: The analyses indicate that higher coverage rate (i.e. the proportion of the relevant population eligible for benefits) is associated with better self-related health among both low- and high-educated individuals, but is not linked to smaller educational differences in health. In contrast, replacement rate (i.e. the amount of benefits received) in isolation is not related to self-assessed health. However, in countries where coverage rates are high, higher replacement rates are associated with better health among both low- and high-educated individuals and smaller educational differences in health. CONCLUSIONS: Decomposing unemployment benefit programmes into two main dimensions--the proportion in the labour force covered by such programmes and the replacement rate received in case of unemployment--may present further insights into institutional mechanisms linking macro-level social policies to individual-level health outcomes.

Do generous unemployment benefit programs reduce suicide rates? A state fixed-effect analysis covering 1968-2008.

The recent economic recession has led to increases in suicide, but whether US state unemployment insurance programs ameliorate this association has not been examined. Exploiting US state variations in the generosity of benefit programs between 1968 and 2008, we tested the hypothesis that more generous unemployment benefit programs reduce the impact of economic downturns on suicide. Using state linear fixed-effect models, we found a negative additive interaction between unemployment rates and benefits among the US working-age (20-64 years) population (ß = -0.57, 95% confidence interval: -0.86, -0.27; P < 0.001). The finding of a negative additive interaction was robust across multiple model specifications. Our results suggest that the impact of unemployment rates on suicide is offset by the presence of generous state unemployment benefit programs, though estimated effects are small in magnitude.

Seguro-desemprego e formalidade no mercado de trabalho brasileiro / Unemployment benefits and formality in the Brazilian labor market / /Seguro de desempleo y formalidad en el mercado de trabajo brasileño

Este trabalho analisa a relação entre seguro-desemprego e emprego formal no mercado de trabalho brasileiro. A hipótese central é de que o recebimento deste benefício tem efeito negativo sobre a formalidade do trabalho no período posterior ao seu recebimento. São usados dados da PNAD (1999-2009). Para avaliar o efeito do seguro-desemprego sobre o mercado de trabalho brasileiro, foram estimados modelos de regressão logística. A variável dependente indica a formalidade no trabalho principal. Além de uma série de variáveis independentes (ano da pesquisa, região de residência, situação censitária, sexo, raça, idade e escolaridade), os modelos contêm uma variável de avaliação de política pública (seguro-desemprego) e variáveis para analisar a tendência desta política pública no decorrer do tempo. O recebimento do benefício do seguro-desemprego apresenta efeito negativo de 42% sobre a formalidade no trabalho principal no momento posterior ao recebimento do benefício. A análise dos termos interativos permite indicar que reajustes dos valores do benefício, realizados desde 1999, não causaram efeitos relevantes na formalização do trabalho.

The authors analyze the relationship between unemployment benefits and formal employment in the Brazilian labor market. The central hypothesis is that the receipt of such benefits has a negative impact on levels of formal employment, after benefits have been received. The data were extracted from the Brazilian Household Surveys between 1999 and 2009. Logistic regression models were estimated in order to evaluate the effect of unemployment benefits on the Brazilian labor market. The dependent variable is the occurrence of formal employment for workers. In addition to a set of independent variables (survey year, region of residence, census area, gender, race, age and education), the models include a public policy evaluation variable (unemployment benefits), as well as variables to analyze the trend of this public policy over time. After having received unemployment benefits, the occurrence of formal employment among workers falls by 42%. The analysis of interactive terms indicates that increases in the real values of the benefits, applied since 1999, have not caused significant effects on the dependent variable.

Este trabajo analiza la relación entre seguro de desempleo y empleo formal en el mercado de trabajo brasileño. La hipótesis central es que la recepción de dicho beneficio ocasiona un efecto negativo sobre la formalidad del trabajo en el periodo posterior a su recepción. Se utilizan datos de Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios - (1999-2009). Para evaluar el efecto del seguro de desempleo sobre el mercado de trabajo brasileño se estimaron modelos de regresión logística. La variable dependiente indica la formalidad en el trabajo principal. Además de una serie de variables independientes (año de la encuesta, región de residencia, situación censitaria, sexo, raza, edad y escolaridad), los modelos contienen una variable de evaluación de política pública (seguro de desempleo) y variables para analizar la tendencia de esta política pública con el paso del tiempo. La recepción del beneficio del seguro de desempleo presenta un efecto negativo de 42% sobre la formalidad en el trabajo principal en el momento posterior a la recepción del beneficio. El análisis de los términos interactivos permite indicar que los reajustes de los valores del beneficio, realizados desde 1999, no causaron efectos relevantes en la formalización del trabajo.